A new supercomputer simulation has given scientists a glimpse into Earth’s distant future—a world where a superheated supercontinent could drive mammals, including humans, to extinction.
The research, led by the University of Bristol, predicts that in 250 million years, Earth’s landmasses will merge into a new supercontinent called Pangaea Ultima. This colossal landmass, likely to form near the equator, will experience extreme temperatures, suffocating humidity, and increased volcanic activity, making most of the planet uninhabitable for mammals.
How Pangaea Ultima Will Change Earth
Earth’s tectonic plates are in constant motion, and over hundreds of millions of years, they periodically collide to form supercontinents before breaking apart again. Scientists believe this cycle has occurred at least three times in the past and will happen again with the rise of Pangaea Ultima.
What Will Make Pangaea Ultima So Dangerous?
Unlike past supercontinents, which supported thriving ecosystems, Pangaea Ultima will create an environmental catastrophe. The simulation highlights three main factors that will make life on this future Earth nearly impossible.
One major factor will be the formation of a massive heat trap. With a vast landlocked interior and no large oceans to regulate the climate, temperatures will soar, leading to extreme desert-like conditions that make survival difficult for most life forms.
Compounding this issue, volcanic activity will surge as tectonic plates collide, releasing massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This spike in CO₂ will intensify the greenhouse effect, further warming the planet and destabilizing ecosystems already struggling with extreme heat.
Making matters worse, the Sun itself will contribute to this hostile environment. In 250 million years, it is expected to be 2.5% more luminous than today, adding yet another layer of heat stress. With rising temperatures, increased volcanic emissions, and a brighter Sun, Earth’s climate could reach an uninhabitable state, making Pangaea Ultima one of the most extreme environments in the planet’s history.
How Hot Will It Get?
The study, published in Nature Geoscience, predicts that most of Pangaea Ultima will experience temperatures above 40°C (104°F), with some areas exceeding 50°C (122°F). This level of heat and humidity will make survival impossible for many mammals, including humans.
Why Mammals Might Not Survive
Mammals rely on evaporative cooling—sweating or panting—to regulate body temperature. However, in Pangaea Ultima, humidity levels will be so high that sweat won’t evaporate, causing mammals to overheat and die.
The study estimates that 92% of Earth’s landmass will be inhospitable for mammals, meaning only polar and coastal regions may remain livable.
Dr. Alexander Farnsworth, a climate scientist at the University of Bristol, describes this scenario as a “triple whammy” for mammals:
- Heatwaves surpassing 50°C (122°F) in many regions
- Intolerable humidity levels that prevent cooling
- Increased volcanic activity, releasing toxic gases and warming the planet even further
This means that unless mammals evolve radically different adaptations, they could face mass extinction.
What About Humans? Can We Adapt?
If humans still exist in 250 million years, they will need to find ways to survive in an environment dominated by extreme heat and humidity. One possibility is biological adaptation. Over millions of years, humans might evolve heat-resistant traits such as thicker skin, modified sweat glands, or even different body shapes to better regulate temperature and withstand the intense climate.
Beyond evolution, technological solutions could play a crucial role. To escape the scorching surface temperatures, humanity may turn to underground living, constructing vast subterranean cities shielded from the worst of the heat. These underground environments could provide stable conditions, protecting future civilizations from the relentless extremes of Pangaea Ultima.
Another potential adaptation involves changing daily habits. Instead of braving the searing daytime heat, humans might become nocturnal, emerging only at night when temperatures are lower. This idea, often explored in science fiction, mirrors the way desert creatures have evolved to survive in harsh environments—much like the Fremen in Frank Herbert’s Dune.
Will We Leave Earth Before It’s Too Late?
Some scientists suggest that long before Pangaea Ultima forms, humans may have already colonized other planets or developed technology to terraform uninhabitable regions of Earth. If so, this supercontinent apocalypse may become more of a historical curiosity than an existential threat.
Pangaea Ultima and Past Mass Extinctions
The formation of supercontinents has been linked to mass extinctions in Earth’s past. Similar geological events have triggered severe climate changes, leading to the disappearance of entire species.
For example, the end-Triassic extinction (about 200 million years ago) wiped out nearly 76% of all species, following a period of volcanic eruptions and climate instability.
Dr. Hannah Davies, a geologist at the GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, believes that while Pangaea Ultima may be devastating, life will eventually find a way to adapt:
“Extinction events have happened before and will happen again. Life will find a way—but it may not be the life we recognize today.”
The Future of Earth’s Climate
Although Pangaea Ultima is still 250 million years away, the forces shaping this distant world—climate change, greenhouse gas emissions, and tectonic shifts—are already at work today.
While humans won’t face this supercontinent catastrophe in our lifetimes, the study serves as a stark reminder that Earth’s climate is constantly evolving, and the planet’s habitability is never guaranteed.
For now, Earth remains our home, but in the grand timeline of the planet’s history, one question remains: Will we still be here when the next supercontinent rises?
This study has been published in nature.