Embracing fast-food culture: Lianhuanhua as a paradigm of visual narrative news

Table 1 shows the frequency of specific stylistic features across the 101 lianhuanhua articles in the dataset. As we can see, visual modalities dominate the dataset, with abstract images appearing in 97.03 percent of all articles (98/101), followed by technological images (89.11%, 90/101), while naturalistic visuals are comparatively rare (28.71%, 29/101). Language styles exhibit more uniformity. Explanatory discourse comprises the largest share (98.02%, 99/101), which is closely followed by narratives and fashionable expressions (97.03%, 98/101 each). Commentaries account for 94.06 percent (95/101) and conversational language appears in 77.23 percent (78/101). Nearly all stylistic features, except naturalistic images, occur in every article, underscoring their integral role in lianhuanhua’s multimodal design. The following sections analyze how these features are represented and (re)constructed in lianhuanhua.

Table 1 The frequency of stylistic features in lianhuanhua.

Style in visual text

Image plays a pivotal role in shaping the style of lianhuanhua. According to Table 2, out of 101 articles, 2753 images are identified, with abstract images dominating at 73.37 percent, followed by technological images at 19.87 percent, and naturalistic images comprising a smaller proportion of 6.76 percent. This distribution suggests that abstract images play a dominant role in constructing a lianhuanhua discourse. However, technological images are also significantly used, appearing in nearly all the lianhuanhua articles, as shown in Table 1. These images demonstrate three major stylistic features: (1) abstract images are used to blend symbolic meaning with amusing messages, (2) technological images are used to visualize and simplify complex information, and (3) naturalistic images are used to reinforce the authentic representation of news content.

Table 2 The frequency of visual modality types in lianhuanhua.

Abstract images: blending symbolic meaning with amusement

Abstract images, often consisting of comics/cartoons or icons, convey symbolic meaning through metaphorical or metonymic representation (Abraham, 2009; WD Feng, 2017). Figure 1, taken from the news article “The urban and rural pension integration,” uses visual metonymy to depict different pension systems. This figure features four busts, each symbolizing a distinct social group and corresponding pension system, with captions accompanying the visuals above them (Barthes, 1977; Caple, 2013; Kress and Van Leeuwen, 1998, 2020[1996]): the bust in suits represents “enterprise workers,” the one in suits and glasses represents “government employees,” the one in crew-neck shirts and big beards represents “urban non-employed persons,” and the one in crew-neck shirts and small beards represents “rural residents.”

Moreover, the minimalist sketches in these images convey not only the meaning of a “type” (Painter et al., 2013: 31) but also a sense of amusement. Each image employs distinct visual cues to convey a social group, with deliberate contrasts highlighting their stereotypical traits. For instance, the depiction of “government employees” as figures in suits and glasses implies that this group maintains a polished, respectable lifestyle, while “urban non-employed persons” are portrayed in crew-neck shirts and unkempt beards, suggesting a dishevelment in their daily lives. This juxtaposition of minimalist sketches not only distinguishes different levels of social classes but also injects (satirical) humor into the representations (Thussu, 2007; Van Leeuwen, 2005).

This effect is also evident in Figs. 6, 8, 10. For instance, Fig. 10 portrays a debate between two individuals, each symbolizing contrasting perspectives held by two distinct social groups. The cartoon-style depiction shows the two figures leaning forward in an intense argument, with fingers pointed at each other. This humorous representation not only effectively conveys the information but also prompts viewers to reflect on the meanings behind the debate.

Technological images: visualizing and simplifying complex information

Technological images aim at visualizing complex information, so much so that audiences can easily understand the scientifically abstract messages (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2020[1996]). These images are mainly infographics such as diagrams, tables, charts, models, and formulas (Chun, 2023; Kuba and Jeong, 2023; Lankow et al., 2012; Roth, 2021; Smiciklas, 2012). Table 3 shows the frequency of technological images used in lianhuanhua.

Table 3 The frequency of technological images in lianhuanhua.

This table shows that among all the infographics, frames (e.g., timelines) occur most frequently, accounting for 37.29 percent, trailed closely by bars (16.27%), pies (13.16%), lines (10.6%), formulas (6.4%), tables (3.84%), maps (3.47%), QR codes (1.65%), and others (7.31%). Frames are narrative infographics often used to recount news stories (Lankow et al., 2012), such as contextual timelines (Kulkarni et al., 2023). Other infographics are quantitative ones commonly used to visualize statistical outcomes such as bars, pies, and lines (Lankow et al., 2012).

While conveying scientific information, technological images in lianhuanhua often incorporate humorous elements and they are thus likely to produce a sense of “edutainment” (Van Leeuwen, 2005: 152). Consider Fig. 2.

This figure, drawn from the news article “What’s wrong with Japanese manufacturing?” illustrates Japan’s global ranking in manufacturing exports per capita through a comparative bar chart. The visualization contrasts Japan’s position (labeled “No. 4”) with higher-ranked countries and regions, offering a clear, data-driven snapshot of its competitive standing. Simultaneously, this figure incorporates humorous, witty elements into the text, such as the ironic rhetorical question “Once esteemed, why is it now in such a dire state?” alongside playful visuals like cartoonish gears, stylized national maps, and bold color contrasts. These lighthearted touches convey not only statistical data but also a sense of amusement (Thussu, 2007; Van Leeuwen, 2005).

Naturalistic images: accentuating authenticity

Naturalistic images emphasize accuracy by ensuring that the depicted objects closely resemble their real-world counterparts (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2020[1996]). Although less commonly used (see Table 1), these images play a significant role in enhancing the authenticity of information. On the one hand, they appear in the form of photographic profiles to manifest the real-world identity of the speakers mentioned in the news (e.g., Figs. 3, 9). On the other hand, they serve as visual supplements to illustrate the content of the accompanying text (Barthes, 1977) (e.g., Fig. 4). Either way, they function to reinforce the authenticity of the information presented.

Figure 3, sourced from the news article “Buffett talks to the 80 s and 90 s in China,” illustrates a simulated dialogue between Warren Buffett and young Chinese investors. The investors are depicted generically through “minimalist” comic sketches (Painter et al. 2013: 31–32), while Buffett is portrayed with a “naturalistic” photograph, lending authenticity to his identity and the credibility of his statements (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2020[1996]: 155–156).

Similarly, Fig. 4 features a photograph of Shangri-La County, accompanied by a caption highlighting that its fiscal revenue was 643.27 million yuan in 2012, yet the government raised its investment to 980 million yuan in 2013. The photograph, accompanied with the caption of amusing topographic design (Van Leeuwen, 2006), visually illustrates the location discussed in the text, functioning to enhance the credibility and authenticity of the information reported (Barthes, 1977; Martinec and Salway, 2005).

Style in verbal text

Verbal text of lianhuanhua also embodies the core characteristics of fast-food culture: simplicity, trendiness, and entertainment. As shown in Table 1, over 90 percent of lianhuanhua articles incorporate explanatory, narrative, commentary, and fashionable expressions, with conversational expressions closely trailing (77.23%). The widespread use of these elements is instrumental in shaping lianhuanhua’s fast-food style, as the following analysis illustrates.

Visualizing explanatory discourse

Lianhuanhua is primarily designed to address pressing and intricate social issues in hard news, which is why explanatory discourse dominates in this type of news (98.02%, see Table 1). Explanatory discourse relies heavily on clear, straightforward language (Herman, 2008; Lewin et al., 2001), often resulting in text that sounds dry and boring. However, lianhuanhua tends to combine plain language with vivid images, creating explanations that are both engaging and accessible to readers. Figure 5, for example, depicts a new concept called “Free Trade Zone” (FTZ). It uses everyday language and bullet points to emphasize key terms like “身份” [identity], “地位” [status], and “自由” [freedom]. The text adopts a resume-like format, humorously portraying the FTZ as a person, with its identity, status, and freedom representing its core attributes.

**Fig. 5: A resume-formed introduction.**

Slightly different, Fig. 6 serves to explain the concept of “Li Keqiang Index [克强指数],” a term not widely used among the public. To enhance understanding, the text dissects this term with both visual and verbal language. It opens with a question-style title, “什么是‘克强指数’” (What is the Li Keqiang Index?), displayed in bold font and vivid color that immediately capture the viewer’s attention. The explanation that follows is presented in a “speech bubble,” which includes a “sayer” and accompanying text (verbiage) that clarifies the term (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2020[1996]: 63–64; Painter et al., 2013: 68–69). The “sayer” is depicted as a cartoonish figure wearing glasses and holding a pointer, reminiscent of a teacher explaining the concept. This engaging presentation makes the definition of the term “Li Keqiang Index” more accessible and appealing to viewers.

**Fig. 6: An example of explanatory discourse.**

Question-and-answer formats in narrative

A news report typically follows a narrative structure, which, as defined by Labov (1972b; Labov and Waletzky, 1967), comprises six key components: abstract (summary of the story), orientation (contextual background), complication (a sequence of escalating events), resolution (solution or outcome), evaluation (significance of the story), and coda (concluding remarks). Central to this framework is the complication, a chain of events (Event-1 to Event-n) that build tension until a critical “problem” arises, followed by the resolution, the decisive moment that resolves the conflict and concludes the narrative (Montgomery, 2010).

Lianhuanhua follows a distinct narrative structure characterized by a question-and-answer (Q&A) format. Our data show that lianhuanhua primarily presents news through a self-questioning and self-answering approach, guiding readers through a sequence of questions step by step toward the story’s final resolution. For example, in the news article “Why is Japan providing funding to help China combat smog?” the journalist employs a series of Q&As to detail Japan’s motivations for “assisting China in combating smog” (see Table 4).

Table 4 An example of Q&A formats.

The Q&A format has at least two merits. On the one hand, it can actively engage the audience by posing thought-provoking questions that encourage readers to reflect, make choices, or share their opinions, thus fostering greater interaction with the news (D Feng, 2020, 2024; Montgomery, 2007). On the other hand, this format simplifies and deconstructs complex information, making it more accessible to the audience.

Fashion and colloquialism

The use of fashionable expressions is a defining characteristic of lianhuanhua. This style aligns with some prominent qualities of fast-food culture, such as fashion, trendiness, and entertainment, echoing Van Leeuwen’s argument on the style of fashion captions (2005; Machin and Van Leeuwen, 2005). Example (1) features headings infused with trendy expressions, such as “高流动性” [high liquidity], “低通胀” [low inflation], and “恐怖袭击” [terrorist attack]. These terms create a fashion-tinged and engaging tone that resonates with readers.

(1)

“高流动性”“低通胀” “日本的资本外汇市场体量巨大”“日本发生政变、骚乱和恐怖袭击的可能性小” [High liquidity, low inflation, Japan’s capital exchange market is huge, and the possibility of coups, riots and terrorist attacks in Japan is small].

Trendy phrases also appear within the body of news articles. Below are some examples used in the report on TikTok’s international expansion.
(2)

“……有关TikTok的大型连续剧播得是热火朝天,不少人那是手心捏着一把汗在追‘剧’啊”“让我来扒一扒”“TikTok是怎么在海外打出一片天的”“四大招搞定”“有前辈们罩着……” [… The large-scale series about TikTok has been broadcast actively, and many people are following the ‘drama’ with sweat in their palms.” “Let me have an in-depth search.” “How has TikTok made success overseas?” “Four strategies to make it.” “Under predecessors’ protection …”].

These expressions encapsulate TikTok’s turbulent journey in North America, metaphorically likened to a “连续剧” [drama series]. The text incorporates popular internet buzzwords such as “热火朝天” [intensely active], “追剧” [following a drama], “扒一扒” [digging into], “打出一片天” [achieving success], “四大招” [four strategies], “前辈们” [predecessors], and “罩着” [providing protection]. These phrases vividly illustrate the highs and lows of TikTok’s global expansion, capturing readers’ attention and prompting their reflection on the associated social issues while making the information engaging and entertaining.

Additionally, lianhuanhua extensively incorporates conversational expressions, accounting for 77.23 percent of the data (see Table 1). Fairclough (1992) refers to this phenomenon as the “conversationalization” of public discourse, arguing that public discourse is shifting toward an informal communication style. Lianhuanhua exemplifies this trend, as shown in Fig. 7.

**Fig. 7: An example of conversational expressions.**

In this example, the phrase “举个例子” [take an example] is humorously replaced with “举个栗子” [take a chestnut], leveraging the phonetic similarity between “栗子” [chestnut] and “例子” [example]. This amusing wordplay, reinforced through the use of bold colors and enlarged text (Van Leeuwen, 2006), adds a lighthearted tone to the text (Machin and Van Leeuwen, 2005; Van Leeuwen, 2005). Additionally, the text employs an informal nickname “小明” [Xiao Ming] to denote the main character of the story presented here, signalling a personal or casual touch in the narrative. These informal expressions help make the content accessible and engaging to readers.

The use of a “dialogue” format, often paired with comic images, is another example of conversational expressions. Figure 8 presents a quasi-dialogue that captures the concerns of ordinary Chinese citizens regarding home purchasing.

The conversation features two humorous characters, “Slim Tall” and “Little Fat,” who engage in a playful exchange. Slim Tall comically expresses hesitation about paying the deed tax, while Little Fat counters with a more compelling argument. Rendered as trendy digital stickers, the characters reflect the integration of modern technology and fast-paced consumption culture in journalism (Denisova, 2023; Pu, 2021). Meanwhile, the verbal text employs colloquial expressions such as “本宝” [benbao, meaning “self”] and the playful phrase “揍是任性” [zoushi renxing, meaning “just being willful”], to mimic everyday conversation. As a result, the dialogue humorously represents public sentiments and effectively captures the audience’s interest.

Image-text projection in commentaries

Table 1 reveals that 94.06 percent of articles employ commentaries, which are characterized by trendy expressions (e.g., “big news,” “high liquidity,” “low inflation”) and image-text projections. The latter refers to a type of visual commentary representation, where a commentator, often depicted via his/her torso or profile, is paired with text in “speech bubbles” or “dialogue balloons” (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2020[1996]: 63–64; Painter et al., 2013: 68–69), as shown in Fig. 9.

**Fig. 9: An example of image-text projection.**

This example demonstrates a typical image-text projection, combining visual and textual elements to reinforce the speaker’s expertise. The image features an avatar of Paul Krugman, a Nobel Prize-winning economist, alongside a caption that bolsters the information’s authenticity. Technical terms in the speech bubble, such as “经济增长” [economic growth] and “社会保障网” [social safety net], further emphasize Krugman’s authority. By combining visuals with accessible language, this format enhances the credibility and intelligibility of the expert’s commentary.

Image-text projections may adopt a debate structure, as shown in Fig. 10. This figure visualizes a hypothetical four-round debate on the merits and drawbacks of artificial meat, here being the second round focusing on environmental impact.

**Fig. 10: An example of visually-represented arguments.**

It depicts two cartoonish figures engaged in a dynamic exchange, with their contrasting viewpoints articulated in text boxes and emphasized through exaggerated gestures and expressions in the image. By merging text-based arguments with visually engaging storytelling, the figure exemplifies how such representations balance serious informative critique with entertainment (Machin and Van Leeuwen, 2005; Thussu, 2007; Van Leeuwen, 2005).

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